Prof. Dr. Kadir SALTALI

K.Maraş Sütçü İmam Univ. Faculty of Agriculture

Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. K.Maras
 

Entrance

Soil is not only an inorganic mass, but also a natural environment that contains air, water, organic matter and various living things (various macro and micro organisms). The number of microorganisms in the soil can reach up to one billion in one gram of soil, and in this respect, scientists define soils as living entities.

In agricultural terms, dead plant and animal wastes are considered organic matter. In general, the source of organic matter is animal manure (feces), plant roots, branches, leaves, stems, straw, stubble and various urban wastes of organic origin. Peat, leonardite and gidya (immature coal), which were formed by the accumulation of organic compounds in aqueous environments in the past, are important organic matter sources. Organic matter has many important biological, physical and chemical functions in soils.

Turkey's soils (except the Black Sea region) are generally poor in terms of organic matter content, and 65% of our country's soils have little or very little organic matter content. In terms of soil quality and production, it is desired that the organic matter content in the soil be more than 3% (good level).
 

Effect of Organic Matter (Fertilizers) on Biological Properties of Soils

The most important element of soil quality is soil organic matter and the number of microorganisms in the soil. Regarding soil fertility and quality, scientists emphasize that the number of living things in the soil is an important criterion. They are of the opinion that the more living creatures in the soil, the more productive the soil. Microorganisms in soil need nutrition and energy to survive. The main food and energy source of microorganisms in soil is organic matter. In terms of production, lands can be compared to a factory. If workers working in a factory go on strike or lighten the work due to insufficient wages, that factory cannot be expected to operate and produce at full capacity. Similarly, soil is a factory and the living creatures living here are our production workers. Living things in the soil need to be adequately fed to function at full capacity. The higher the organic matter content of a soil, the higher its agricultural production capacity. In an environment where food resources are scarce, the number of living things decreases and only those who can adapt to difficult conditions and are strong can survive in the environment. If the organic matter in the soil is insufficient, the number of living things in the soil will decrease and therefore the production capacity of the soil will decrease. The purpose of artificial fertilizers applied to soil at various times is only to feed plants in the short term and has no significant benefit for soil organisms. It is not possible to produce continuously with artificial fertilizers in terms of sustainable agriculture. After a certain point, the fatigue seen in humans begins to be seen in the soil as well, and productivity decreases over time.

 

The Effect of Organic Matter on the Physical Properties of Soils

One of the important factors that determine the processing and use of soil in agricultural production is the physical properties of the soil. Soil properties such as soil structure, structure, aeration, water retention capacity, and bonding of individual soil particles are considered physical properties. Organic matter improves the physical properties of soils and provides a suitable environment for plants (Figure 1). In the research conducted on this subject with barnyard manure, it was determined that organic fertilizers increased the water retention capacity of the soil and in areas where barnyard manure was given, twice as much water entered the soil compared to those not given. This is due to the fact that organic fertilizers bind individual soil particles together and give the soil a spongy structure.

Organic fertilizers provide a good soil structure by binding individual soil particles together. Good soil structure also reduces soil erosion. In clayey soils, it reduces soil compaction, giving the soil a loose structure and reducing the formation of a cream layer. Good soil structure ensures retention of water and plant nutrients in the soil. In clayey (sticky and mud) soils, the soil structure improves and the soil reaches the pan (the appropriate amount of moisture for the soil to be processed) more quickly and plowing becomes easier. In soils with good organic matter content, plant growth is better as aeration in the plant root area (oxygen entry from the atmosphere to the soil, carbon dioxide exit from the soil) is better. Soils take on a dark color as organic matter decomposes. Dark colored soils retain more sunlight than light colored soils and the soil temperature increases. As the soil temperature increases, plant root development and chemical reactions in the soil increase.

Effect of Organic Matter on the Chemical Properties of Soils

Organic substances constitute the main source of many plant nutrients. Although the plant nutritional content of different organic substances varies, if artificial fertilizers are not added externally, soil organic matter provides 90-99% of the total soil nitrogen, 33-37% of the soil phosphorus and 70-80% of the sulfur in the soil. In addition, soil organic matter also contains other different plant nutrients such as potassium, manganese, boron, copper, zinc and molybdenum. Plant nutrients contained in organic matter gradually become available to plants during the decomposition of organic matter, and plants can absorb these nutrients continuously for up to 3-5 years. Soils with good organic matter content prevent artificial fertilizers from being washed out of the soil quickly, preventing ground water pollution and allowing plants to benefit more from the applied fertilizers.

Organic compounds released during the decomposition of organic substances in soils make plant nutrients available in soils that cannot be absorbed by plants. At the same time, organic compounds attach to clay surfaces that hold plant nutrients in the soil, reducing the retention of nutrients by clays and preventing them from becoming unavailable to plants (Figure 2). Thus, soil fertility and plant development increases.

Organic substances increase the buffering capacity of soils. With its buffering feature, sudden changes that may occur in the soil (such as increase or decrease in blood pressure in humans) due to the addition of lime, fertilizer, toxic compounds and other substances are prevented.

 

How to Protect and Increase the Organic Matter Content of Soils

To ensure the continuity of soil organic matter, plants that increase organic matter (green manures) should be included in planting. Green manuring, that is, applying the plants during the flowering period and mixing them with the soil, should be done every 3-5 years. Alternation of grains, vegetables and forage crops preserves and increases the organic matter content of soils. As much as possible, more stubble residues should be left in the soil and should not be burned. Especially in grains, after the product is harvested, if stubble residues cause problems during subsequent planting, if possible, the soil should be processed in shade and the stubble residues should be mixed with the soil.

For the continuity of agricultural production, animal manures and other organic materials must be added to fields and gardens. Soil organic matter can be increased by mixing straw and straw wastes, various plant and animal wastes and organic fertilizers with the soil. Animal manures and organic fertilizers must be mixed with the soil after being applied to the soil. Otherwise, nitrogen, especially found in animal manure, will turn into gas and disappear.

 

Conclusion

In order to obtain high productivity while preserving the quality and vitality of the soil, the organic matter content of the soil should be increased or at least the current situation should be maintained. Due to the organic matter content, the quality of fruits and vegetables grown in soil with good soil quality is also good.

 

References

Kacar, B. Katkat,V.1999. Gübreler ve Gübreleme Tekniği. Uludağ Üni. Güçlendirme Vakfı Yayın No;144, Bursa

Brohi,A.R., Aydeniz, A., Karaman, M.R.1995. Toprak Verimliliği. GOP. Üni. Ziraat Fak. Yayın No:5  Tokat

Brady, C.N.1990.The Nature and Properties of Soils. Macmillan Pub. Company. New York

Eyüpoğlu, F. 1999. Türkiye Topraklarının Verimlilik Durumu. Toprak ve Gübre Arş. Ens. Yayınları. No;220, Ankara

Sposito,G. 1989. The Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press. New York

Figure 1. Comparison of two soils with low and good organic matter (OM) content

Figure 2. Organic compounds in the soil prevent nutrients from becoming unavailable

Prof. Dr. Sait GEZGİN

Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, KONYA

 

One of the most important elements of obtaining quality and abundant products per unit area in plant production is balanced fertilization. Balanced fertilization; Depending on the soil properties, it is to provide all the plant nutritional elements that the plants need and are deficient in the soil, at the appropriate time, in the appropriate amounts and forms, and in the appropriate way. For balanced fertilization, soil and plant analyzes must be performed.

While soil analysis determines the amounts of nutrients in the soil and the properties that affect the uptake of these nutrients by plants, plant analyzes provide information about the utilization of nutrients in the soil by plants, depending on soil, plant and climate characteristics. For this reason, while soil analyzes are often sufficient for balanced fertilization, in some cases, especially in orchards and greenhouses, it is necessary to perform plant analyzes as well as soil analyzes as a complement to each other.

Soil analyzes can make significant contributions to the protection of the fertility potential of soils, the nutrition and health of humans and animals, and the prevention of environmental pollution, as well as increasing the efficiency and quality of plant production through balanced fertilization. For these reasons, it is a very important and appropriate decision that the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs has supported soil analysis since 2009.

However, today in our country there are very important problems with laboratories that conduct soil analyzes for fertilization purposes.

In my opinion, these problems and their solutions are as follows:

 

1) Taking soil samples: The majority of soil samples brought to laboratories are not taken on time and in accordance with the procedure. For example, soil samples are collected intensively from grain cultivated lands between January and May. However, soil samples for fertilization purposes should be taken and analyzed before the sowing or planting time of the plants and fertilization programs should be created. Because some of the fertilizers, especially phosphorus fertilizers, and some of them are applied during sowing or planting.

For this purpose, soil samples taken and analyzed during the vegetation period of the grown plant should not be supported in order to take soil samples properly and on time, and soil samples should be taken by or under the responsibility of a technical personnel (Agricultural Engineer or technician) and delivered to the laboratory with his signature.

Samples taken from lands where crop production is not carried out or left fallow should not be supported. The farmer and the technical personnel who signed the delivery of the samples to the laboratory should be held responsible for incorrect soil sampling and some criminal sanctions should be imposed.

 

2) Mandatory analyzes to be performed on soil samples: Water saturation, pH, total salt, lime, available P, available K and organic matter analyzes are required to be performed in soil samples for support. Considering the soil characteristics of our country, these analyzes are not sufficient for balanced fertilization programs.

Because, according to the results of many studies conducted in our country, although K and Mg are generally at sufficient levels in our soil, it is recommended to fertilize with potassium and magnesium, especially potassium, depending on the plant type, soil characteristics and especially the balance between K, Ca and Mg. In fact, in some cases, calcium fertilization is even recommended in fruit and vegetable cultivation.

In addition, according to current mandatory analyses, nitrogen fertilizer recommendation is made according to the organic matter content of the soil. In most of the studies conducted on nitrogen fertilization in our country, it has been determined that there is an accumulation of inorganic nitrogen (NH4 + NO3) in our soil due to unconscious fertilization for years. As a matter of fact, according to the results of the research conducted to determine the most appropriate methods that can be used to determine the amount of nitrogen beneficial to the plant in the soils of different regions of our country, it has been reported that the NO3-N method is the most suitable for the soils of the Çukurova region, Gediz plain, Iğdır plain, and Konya-Çumra plain. In addition, according to the results of many studies conducted in our country, depending on the general characteristics of our soil, deficiencies of microelements (B, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu), especially Fe and Zn, and their excess in some places, especially boron, are very common and increase the efficiency and productivity in plant production.

For these reasons, inorganic nitrogen (NH4+NO3), available Ca, available Mg and trace elements (B, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu) should be added to the existing list of mandatory analyzes in order to make a well-balanced fertilization program according to soil analysis.

 

3) Fertilizer supports: All fertilizers used in the fertilization program created according to the soil analysis results should be included in the scope of support. The type and amount of fertilizer recommended by experts and the fertilizer used by the farmer should be checked. Soil analysis should be mandatory in order for those who produce vegetables, especially in areas smaller than 50 decares, to receive fertilizer support.

 

4) Laboratory inspections: Laboratory inspections should be increased. The accuracy of laboratories' analyzes should be tested with reference soil and plant samples at least once a year. After warning the laboratories that failed the first test, they should be subjected to the same test again and the staff of those that failed should be given paid training somewhere, then the same test should be done again and the laboratories that failed again should be authorized and closed down.

In addition, the devices used by laboratories should be calibrated every year. Laboratories should be held responsible for incorrect analyzes and fertilizer recommendations and some criminal sanctions should be imposed.

Laboratory inspections should be carried out by technical personnel who have worked in laboratories for a certain period of time in their professional lives, especially Agricultural Engineers Graduated from the Soil Department. In this regard, support can be obtained from the Soil Science and Plant Nutrition departments of the Faculties of Agriculture. Regional reference laboratories should be established. Laboratories should record soil analysis results, fertilizer recommendations and chemical consumables purchased online.

 

5) Tarımsal Laboratuvarlar Kurulu: Laboratuvarların denetimleri, laboratuvar açma-kapama veya diğer işlerle ilgili bütün tarafların (Bakanlık-TÜGEM-TAGEM, Ziraat Fakültesi-Toprak Bilimi ve Bitki Besleme Bölümü, Ziraat Odaları, Özel sektör) yer alacağı bir kurul oluşturulmalıdır. Bu kurul, üst kurul olarak Ankara’da ve illerde oluşturulabilir.

 

5) Agricultural Laboratories Board: A board should be established to include all parties (Ministry-TÜGEM-TAGEM, Faculty of Agriculture-Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, Chambers of Agriculture, Private sector) related to laboratory inspections, laboratory opening-closing or other works. This board can be established as a supreme board in Ankara and in the provinces.

 

6) Analysis fees: A standard should be introduced in analysis fees. Because especially chambers of agriculture and private laboratories compete unfairly in this regard.

 

7) Capacity of laboratories: The maximum number of samples that laboratories can analyze should be determined according to space, equipment, staff availability and daily-monthly working time. In this case, laboratories can be prevented from writing reports without analysis. Additionally, consumable invoice numbers should be added to the chemical substance registry. Thus, the number of analyzes performed can be determined by comparing the consumables spent with the invoices.

 

8) Education: First of all, arrangements should be made in the curriculum of the Faculty of Agriculture - Soil Science and Plant Nutrition departments to provide students with sufficient information on soil, plant, water and fertilizer analysis and, accordingly, creating balanced fertilization programs for at least the most grown plants in our country, and laboratory management. Laboratory personnel should be required to attend training every year on the interpretation of soil, plant, water and fertilizer analysis results and fertilizer recommendations. In this regard, support should be received from the Faculty of Agriculture-Soil Science and Plant Nutrition departments. In addition, farmers should be trained and demonstration studies should be carried out on taking samples of soil, plants, water and fertilizers, their preservation, transportation and analysis, as well as analysis-based fertilization.

 

9) Plant analyses: While soil analyzes are often sufficient for balanced fertilization, in some cases, especially in orchards, it is necessary to perform plant analyzes as well as soil analyzes as a complement to each other. Therefore, plant analyzes should be supported like soil analyses.

* This article was also presented as a paper at the 5th National Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer Congress.

With the formation of the earth, living movement began on the surface of the earth. Life has continued and continues for living creatures by establishing its own balance in nature. One of the important elements in this formation is soil, perhaps the most important resource. Because soil is very important for living things. It is an indispensable habitat for humans, animals and the plant world. Take people for example; From food to clothing to places to live, soil is needed and soil is used to provide these. It is also a source of food for animals and an environment that allows plants to survive. So, what is the scientific definition of soil, whose benefits we have listed so many times:

 

"Soil is a three-dimensional entity that covers the surface of the earth as a thin layer, consists of a mixture of various decomposition products of rocks and organic matter, hosts a wide range of living things in and on it, is a stopping place and a source of food for plants, and contains water and air in certain proportions." Akalan (1988). .

 

As can be understood from the definition above, soil is a living entity. Therefore, living things need to know this existence very well in order to survive. The best way to know the soil is to analyze the soil. These analyzes can be best done under laboratory conditions.

 

For good plant growth, half of the soil's volume must consist of water and air, and the other half must consist of solid materials. In order to maintain this balance, appropriate irrigation and fertilization must be done. What kind of fertilizer to apply and how much is needed can only be determined by knowing the soil. Here the need for soil analysis arises. So, what should be done for soil analysis? This is the question that needs to be answered first. Soil analysis begins with taking soil samples from the field.

 

 

The main tools and equipment required to remove soil from the land are;

 

 

 

The best way to do this procedure correctly is to consult with experts. There should be cooperation with local governments on this issue.

Another important issue is choosing the right place to sample. What is desired here is to take a soil sample that will best represent the land. Another issue to consider is the purpose for which soil samples will be taken. For general purposes, soil samples can generally be taken from the upper 30 cm with a shovel or waist. To do this, the soil surface is excavated in a V shape and a sample is taken from its smooth edge. The sample taken should never be contaminated. For special purposes, such as tree growing, it may be necessary to take soil samples from different depths. The tool that should be used for this is an auger, and the augers should be selected according to the field conditions.

 

 

Places where it is not appropriate to take soil samples are:

1. Places where there used to be manure heaps

2. Places where animal manure is found

3. Threshing floor and places where animals lie down

4. Places where plant remains are found

5. under tree

6. Places near roads, streams and canals

Asst. Assoc. Dr. Korkmaz BELLİTÜRK

(Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition)

 

Soi is a very valuable asset that forms the basis of agriculture, is very difficult to recover and almost impossible to replace with anything else, and is also alive, dynamic and three-dimensional.

Soil, from which almost all nutrients are obtained, is an indispensable element of agricultural production and is one of the resources that can be lost if it is not protected with adequate measures. 1 cm of soil is formed in approximately 250 years. The formation process of fertile agricultural lands cannot be accelerated. (Taşkaya, 2004)

Keeping the chemical, physical and biological conditions of soils at an optimum level and making them suitable for sustainable agriculture and plant production is becoming increasingly important in agriculture.

In addition to mechanically supporting a plant, soil also provides it with water and nutrients. There is a close relationship between plants and soil. Fertile soil is truly living and dynamic, containing varying amounts of organic matter, minerals, water and air.

In our country, which ranks first in Europe with an annual population growth rate of 2.2%, 40% of the population consists of young people under the age of 25 and approximately 1.5 million children are born every year. Needs such as these are constantly increasing in parallel. While it is a fact that the needs of the increasing population are met by using natural resources, future generations will also need the same natural resources, and attention should also be paid to preserving the nutritional balance of our soil. (Belliturk, 2006)

 

 

Mistakes made on agricultural lands

Today, according to various press and internet sources, 12% of the world's land is used for crop cultivation. 26% of this area is used for the cultivation of food products, and in 2020, 15% of this area will be suitable for growing food products. However, according to the statements of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1 child dies of hunger every 5 seconds in the world and 1 million people face this disaster every year. The most important factors that lead to hunger disaster are the loss of productivity in the soil, poor environmental conditions and the short shelf life of products due to chemical concentration (fertilizer, pesticide, diesel fuel residues).

Factors affecting the increase in production in agriculture can be expressed as the use of chemical inputs, breeding studies (increasing the capacity of production materials), use of mechanization, expansion of arable areas, selection of suitable seeds, increasing and activating irrigation facilities. Today, production inputs used to increase efficiency in agricultural production are applied in an uncontrolled manner. While the inputs used increase efficiency, they can also negatively affect the environment and human health. In recent years, three types of inputs have been used intensively and incorrectly in order to increase productivity in agriculture. These are: the use of hybrid and GMO (genetically modified organism) seeds, the use of pesticides (agricultural pesticides) and the use of chemical fertilizers.

 

 

Wrong fertilization: In our country, fertilization is done with the logic of "the more fertilizer you apply, the more productivity you will get" and thus the productivity of the soil decreases.

In recent years, as a result of incorrect agricultural efforts, it has been observed that there has been a decrease in the amount of many nutrients, especially the organic matter of the soil. In addition, due to reasons such as applying the wrong type of fertilizer, the pH balance of the soil is disrupted and acidity rates increase. In parallel with this, in acid conditions, some elements (phosphorus, calcium, etc.) are prevented from being taken up by plants, and negativities due to nutrient deficiency are observed in plant growth.

 

Soil fatigue: It is defined as the slowdown in the growth and development of some cultivated plants grown successively in the same soil or the decrease in soil fertility and quality due to various other reasons. Soil fatigue, chemical-physical-biological structure of the soil, problems caused by fertilization-irrigation-soil cultivation, deficiency and excess of plant nutrients, parasitic causes (bacteria, soil fungi, nematodes, viruses) and excessive accumulation of these parasites, climate changes, It may be caused by various reasons such as erosion.

 

"Soil pollution", one of the most important factors that will determine people's future quality of life, is now very important today. The cause of soil pollution is not only industrial but also agricultural activities.

It is also seen that there has been a decrease in the availability of arable land in Turkey since 1980. As a matter of fact, Turkey has made significant economic progress as a result of its foreign opening policy implemented after 1980. As a result, investments for housing, industry and tourism increased and thus, misuse of agricultural lands occurred. When the change in Turkey's agricultural lands over the years is examined, it is seen that the total agricultural areas decreased by 6.93% in 2008 compared to 1990. (Bayramoğlu, 2010)

 

 

Misuse of land: The use of agricultural lands in Turkey for purposes such as infrastructure works, urbanization, second housing and industrialization is one of the biggest environmental problems of our country.

In the process of rapid urbanization, it is natural that the demand for land for urban purposes increases. Investments such as urbanization and industrialization, tourism, highways, railways, energy and pipelines, dams, airports and sports facilities, brick-tile quarries and factories, open-pit mines, etc. Activities are the most important factors that play a role in the misuse of agricultural lands. (Taşkaya, 2004)

According to the land use ability classification, 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th class soils are agricultural lands suitable for cultivation. While 5th, 6th and 7th class soils are suitable for use as pasture and forest areas, 8th class soils are areas that can be used for natural life and water collection basins. However, 22% of the cultivated agricultural areas in Turkey consist of soils in the 5th, 6th and 7th skill classes. While these lands should be used as pasture and forest areas, their use for agricultural purposes further increases the problems related to land use. In addition, 171,992 hectares of residential area were built on lands of the 1st and 4th talent classes, and 70% of the area covered by tourist facilities is arable land. In this case, 18.7% of productive agricultural lands are reserved for uses related to non-agricultural activities. In the face of very high increases in the value of agricultural lands around residential areas, which are converted into plots, it becomes difficult to ensure that these lands continue to be used in agriculture. (Taşkaya, 2004)

As a result of the decrease, degradation and pollution in many other natural assets, especially soil; Agricultural production continues to be negatively affected, the constantly increasing population increases the demand for foodstuffs, and therefore this development may lead to some economic and then social problems.

Activities such as irrigation, fertilization and spraying to strengthen the soil and increase productivity should be done in a conscious and controlled manner. If this is not taken into consideration, soil and water resources will be excessively polluted as a result of the deterioration of ecological balance, major environmental problems will occur, and after a while, agricultural production, which seems to have increased, will begin to decline rapidly. (Yıldız et al., 2000).

Our country's agricultural enterprises are quite small, and the lands owned by the enterprises are also quite fragmented. The number of businesses with 100 decares of land is a very high rate of 82.9% of the total business owners. In other words, our country's agricultural enterprises consist of very small family enterprises. These results are one of the most important factors that restrict our agricultural production and reduce productivity. (Keşli, 2011)

 

 

What needs to be done for controlled fertilization of our agricultural lands

In order to prevent the damage caused by agriculture to the environment, agricultural techniques must be applied properly, agricultural inputs should be used consciously and sparingly, organic agriculture should become widespread, and the philosophy of sustainable agriculture must be implemented so that future generations can meet their own needs. (Altan et al., 2000)

Fertilizer is the most important input used to maintain and improve soil fertility in the sustainability of crop production and obtaining high productivity from plants. It is as important to know the properties of the fertilizers we use to nourish those lands as it is to know the soils on which we carry out agricultural activities. Especially in recent years, the use of fertilizers (crop fertilizer, paddy fertilizer, tea fertilizer, etc.) according to the product type produced by some fertilizer companies in our country should be expanded in line with the recommendations of experts.

The average fertilizer consumption in the world is 11.6 kg/da per year, the average fertilizer consumption in Turkey is 8.5 kg/da per year, and the amount of fertilizer used in Turkey meets 57% of the need. Therefore, controlled fertilization models and doing what is necessary under the supervision of experts in the use of fertilizers are extremely important in meeting the plant nutritional needs of the soil. Conscious use of fertilizer, that is, based on soil and leaf analysis, should be ensured, without ignoring the fact that every external intervention in nature will have side effects.

In addition to using the soil for its intended purpose to protect and increase soil fertility, some other issues that need to be done urgently are briefly summarized below:

 

– Crop rotation (rotation), which is important in eliminating soil fatigue,

– Preserving and, if necessary, increasing the amount of organic matter and other nutrients in the soil,

– Encouraging and disseminating the use of organic fertilizers in order to reduce soil erosion, among its many benefits,

– Leaving plant residues close to the surface and not burning the stubble,

– Use of agricultural work machines and tractors that compact the soil less,

– Carrying out reclamation studies to eliminate acidification and salinity in soils due to excessive fertilizer use,

– Ensuring the use of agricultural lime in acidic soils,

– Developing balanced policies on the use of inputs that can be controlled in agriculture and taken into the field of study,

– Choosing the right fertilizer according to the characteristics of the soil and the product to be grown,

– Fertilization is done in consultation with experts in plant nutrition.

The following words of Native American Chief Seattle, who did not want to sell his lands to the US President of the time, in his letter written in 1854, are significant:

“When the last river dries up,

When the last tree disappears,

When the last fish dies,

The white man will understand that money is inedible!”

 

REFERENCES

Altan, T., Kanber, R., Özbek, H. ve Şekeroğlu, E., 2000. Tarım ve Çevre. Özgürlük Dünyası Dergisi, Sayı:102, Ağustos, Ankara.

Bayramoğlu, Z., 2010. Tarımsal Verimlilik ve Önemi. Selçuk Tarım ve Gıda Bilimleri Dergisi 24 (3): 52-61, Konya.

Bellitürk, K., 2006. Buğdayda Azotlu Gübrelemenin Trakya Bölgesi Toprakları İçin Önemi. Renkli Tarım Dergisi, Çorlu-Tekirdağ, 2: 46-49, (2006).

Keşli, Y., 2011. Miras Kredisi. Türktarım Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Dergisi, Ocak-Şubat Sayı: 197: 29-32, Ankara.

Taşkaya, B., 2004. Tarım ve Çevre. Tarımsal Ekonomi Araştırma Enstitüsü, Sayı 5, Nüsha 1: 1-8, Ankara.

Yıldız, K., Sipahioğlu, Ş. ve Yılmaz, M., 2000. Çevre Bilimi. Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık, Sayfa: 91, Ankara.

Prof. dr. Suleyman TABAN

Ankara University Faculty of Agriculture, Soil Department, ANKARA

 

1. Introduction

The purpose of agricultural production; To feed the population, whose number is increasing day by day, in a balanced and continuous manner. Today's urbanization and industrialization threaten agricultural areas and do not allow the creation of new agricultural areas. For this reason, considering that agricultural areas will not expand, it has become necessary to look for ways to get the most and quality products from the unit agricultural area with the least input.

Seeds, fertilizer, medicine, mechanization, irrigation, etc. Considering inputs such as these, it is easily understood that agricultural production is not cheap at all. On the other hand, money spent for investment purposes does not return profitably in such a short time in any industry other than agriculture. Then, we need to look for ways to buy quality and abundant products at the least cost. The most important of these is the conscious use of fertilizers.

When used more or less than necessary, plant production is not only low and of poor quality, but it is also not economically efficient.

When you think about the solution to this problem, it becomes clear that the most accurate and conscious way to fertilize in a balanced and timely manner is soil and plant analysis.

 

2. Soil Analysis As A Guide In Fertilization

Fertilizing cultivated plants is theoretically a very simple process. What needs to be done here is to subtract the amount of plant nutrients available to the plant in the soil from the amount of nutrients the plant needs for its development, and to add enough fertilizer to the soil to cover the difference.

This phenomenon can be simply formulated as follows.

Amount of fertilizer =

The amount of nutrients the plant needs

–

Amount of soil available nutrients

 

However, the real situation is not as simple as expressed here. Because the soil, the environment in which the plant grows, is not static but has a dynamic structure. The development of plants grown in such a dynamic structure is not under the individual and mutual effects of a single factor, but of a wide variety of factors. For this reason, it is impossible to accurately predict the development status of the plants to be grown by looking at the soil. Likewise, it is necessary to reliably determine the amount of plant nutrients present in the soil and their availability to plants and make recommendations. For example, let the zinc amount of the soil available to the plant be 0.8 mg kg-1. This value is more than 0.5 mg Zn kg-1, which is the critical limit value for zinc. Therefore, it seems that the soil does not have a problem in terms of zinc. If the lime content of the same soil is around 20%, the available phosphorus amount is around 15 mg kg-1 and the pH is close to 8, it is still impossible to say that there is no problem in terms of zinc, considering the type of plant to be grown in that soil. Because the high amount of lime and phosphorus in the soil limits the usefulness of zinc. How much has it limited? Or to what extent can the plant benefit from 0.8 mg kg-1 zinc? To answer these questions, plant and soil analyzes are needed.

 

3. Soil Analysis

Soil analyzes are performed for different purposes. It is recommended to carry out soil analyzes to determine their suitability for roads, buildings and other structures (dams, tunnels, etc.), especially in agriculture, in mining, oil exploration, drainage, land reclamation and environmental pollution studies.

In terms of agriculture, soils are frequently analyzed and agriculture is carried out scientifically according to the analysis results.

 

3.1. Soil Analysis from Agricultural Perspectives

1. Determining the amount of nutrients in the soil and its ability to provide nutrients to plants

2. Determining the type and amount of fertilizer to be applied

3. Determining the source of nutritional disorders in soil

4. Diagnosis and rehabilitation of salty and sodium areas

5. Land survey, genesis and classification

6. Plant type to be grown

7. Soils are analyzed for purposes such as drainage problems and solutions.

 

In agricultural terms, that is, in plant cultivation, it is necessary to properly extract the amounts of plant nutrients present in the soil and then analyze them accurately with appropriate chemical methods.

In crop production, the quantity and quality of the product depends on the amount of nutrients in the soil. To find out this, soil samples are needed.

The amount of these nutrients available to the plant is more important than the total amount. When nutrient analyzes in soil are mentioned, we mean chemical analyzes that are extracted from the soil with appropriate extraction methods and are described as the part that is useful to the plant. For this purpose, the analyzes performed on soil and the chemical methods used in these analyzes are given collectively in Table 1.

Achieving the expected benefit from soil analysis depends, first of all, on the soil sample being taken in accordance with the rules. When looked at, it seems that the soil is the same everywhere, but this is misleading. If there is a significant difference in the appearance of both the soil and the land within the same field, it is necessary to take independent soil samples from each area where these differences are observed. Also, something to note is that my neighbor had his field next to mine analyzed. The idea that since the fields are neighbors, I can use their results should never be allowed.

The values obtained as a result of the analyzes performed on the soil are interpreted by comparing them with the limit values of that element in the soil. The limit values determined for this purpose are given in Table 2.

 

Table 1. Chemical analyzes performed for soil fertility purposes and the methods used in the analyzes

Feature	Method and Literature	Feature	Method and Literature
Texture (Body)	Hydrometer Method Bouyoucus, 1951	Iron (Fe) useful to plants	Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method in DTPA extractLindsay and Norvell, 1978
Lime (CaCO3)	Calcimeter Method (Scheibler Calcimeter) Allison and Moodie, 1965	Useful for plants: Zinc (Zn)	Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method in DTPA extractLindsay and Norvell, 1978
Cation Exchange Capacity, (KDK)	Saturation Method with Sodium Jackson,1958; Chapman and Pratt,1961;	Manganese (Mn) useful for plants	Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method in DTPA extractLindsay and Norvell, 1978
Organic Matter (OM)	Modified Walkey-Black Method Walkley and Black, 1934; Walkley, 1947; Greweling and Peech, 1960; Nelson and Sommers, 1982	Useful for plants: Copper (Cu)	Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) Method in DTPA extractLindsay and Norvell, 1978
pH	in a 1:2.5 soil/water extractRichards, 1954; Jackson, 1958	Phosphorus (P) useful to the plant	Sodium Bicarbonate Method Olsen et al., 1954
	In the saturation extract Richards, 1954	Boron useful for plants (B)	Azomethin-H Method Wolf, 1971
Electrical Conductivity(EC)	in 1:2.5 soil/water extractRichards, 1954	Beneficial to plants: Molybdenum (Mo)	Acid Ammonium Oxalate Method Grigg, 1953; Purvis and Peterson, 1956
	In the saturation extract Richards, 1954	Useful for plants: Sulfur (S)	Turbidimetric Method Fox et al., 1964
Total Nitrogen (N)	Micro Kjeldahl Method Kjeldahl, 1883; Bremner, 1965	Boron useful for plants (B)	Azomethin-H Method Wolf, 1971
Ammonium(NH+4)	Steam Distillation Method for Samples Extracted with Potassium ChlorideBremner, 1965	VariablePotassium (K)	Fleymphotometric Method in Neutral 1 Normal Ammonium Acetate extractJackson, 1958
Nitrate + Nitrite(NO͓3+NO͓2)	Steam Distillation Method for Samples Extracted with Potassium ChlorideBremner, 1965	Variable Sodium (Na)	Fleymphotometric Method in Neutral 1 Normal Ammonium Acetate extractJackson, 1958
Ammonium + Nitrate + Nitrite (NH + 4 + NO 3 + NO 2)	Steam Distillation Method for Samples Extracted with Potassium ChlorideBremner, 1965	Variable Calcium (Ca)	Method of Titration with EDTA in Neutral 1 Normal Ammonium Acetate extractJackson, 1958
Ammonium + Nitrate(NH+4+NO±3)	Steam Distillation Method for Samples Extracted with Potassium ChlorideBremner, 1965	ExchangeableMagnesium (Mg)	Method of Titration with EDTA in Neutral 1 Normal Ammonium Acetate extractJackson, 1958
Nitrate (NO͓3)	Steam Distillation Method for Samples Extracted with Potassium ChlorideBremner, 1965

 

Table 2 Limit values used in evaluating soil fertility analysis results

 

 

3.2. Taking Soil Samples

3.2.1. Where to take soil samples in the field

The soil of different fields contains different amounts of plant nutrients. For this, separate soil samples must be taken from each field.

– There may be parts with different characteristics within the same field. For example, some of the field soil may be light colored and the other part may be dark. This color difference shows us that there are differences in many substances such as organic matter and iron in these two parts of the field.

– Part of the field may be flat and some may be sloped. or one part of the field may be barren, while another part may be relatively more productive. If there are such different places in the same field, soil samples should be taken from these areas separately.

 

 

3.2.2. Where can't soil samples be taken?

After determining the area where the soil sample will be taken, the point where the shovel is dipped to collect soil is;

– If it is a threshing floor or a place where animals lie down,

– If it is a place where manure was previously collected,

– If it is a place where stems, roots or weeds are burned in heaps,

– The point where animal manure is located,

– The field's mounds or hollow points with water accumulation,

– Land areas close to streams, forests, watercourses and roads,

– If the products planted in rows are on rows,

– Areas close to buildings,

– Soil samples should not be taken from under a few trees in the field, except for lands reserved for growing trees, such as fruit growing and poplar cultivation.

 

 

3.2.3. How to take a soil sample

 

For annual plants: To take soil samples for fertilization purposes in annual plants; A shovel, a container (bucket, basin, large nylon) and a clean nylon or cloth bag are needed to mix the soil samples taken.

Before using these materials, the shovel must be thoroughly cleaned and there must be no other residue left on it. The nylon or cloth bag in which we will put the soil samples and send them to the laboratory for analysis should be large enough to hold up to 1 kg of soil.

 

Sampling: You go to the field with the tools prepared to take a soil sample. By entering from one end of the field, samples are taken and progressed to the other end. However, these samples should not be taken in a straight line from one end of the field to the other, but by making zig-zags. Care should be taken to take samples from all parts of the area to be transplanted.

 

Soil Sampling

Mixed soil samples should be taken from pits opened by drawing zig-zag lines from one end of the field to the other, as shown in the figure.

In this way, the soil samples taken from the field are put into the bucket and proceed to the other side of the field. All soil samples taken from the field and placed one on top of the other in the bucket are mixed thoroughly. Up to 1 kg of soil sample is placed in a nylon or cloth bag.

 

Labeling: It is done to determine who the prepared and bagged soil sample belongs to and from which field it was taken.

 

To do this, write with a pencil on a piece of paper:

– Name surname

– Where the soil sample was taken (name of the field or names of different places in the same field)

– Which plant will be planted in this field in the next planting season?

– Write down which plant was planted in this field last year.

– This prepared paper is placed into the bag.

 

Labeling Example

 

How to take samples in the field?

When it comes to the point where soil samples will be taken in the field

– It should be checked whether this place is suitable for taking soil samples.

– If this place is suitable for sampling, things such as grass and stalks on the soil are cleaned manually.

– In the cleaned area, the shovel is immersed into the soil at a depth of 20 cm (plow plowing depth).

– This soil is placed as it is, right next to the opened pit.

– If soil has spilled from the edges into the pit, it is then cleaned by hand.

– Then the shovel is immersed to a depth of 18-20 cm to remove 3-5 cm thick soil and slowly lifted.

– The sample taken is smoothed only from the sides on the shovel and placed into the bucket.

Thus, one soil sample is taken. For approximately 40 decares of field, 10-20 samples are taken and placed in a bucket, and these soils in the bucket are mixed and a sample is taken.

 

 

While taking a soil sample, a V-shaped hole is dug. Then, a 3-4 cm thick and 18-20 cm long soil slice is taken from the smooth surface of the pit.

 

What should be taken into consideration when bagging samples?

If the soil samples are placed in nylon bags, the nylons are pierced with a pencil in several places. Thus, moisture from the soil is ensured to fly through these holes. At the same time, the paper label we put inside is prevented from disintegrating due to moisture. The soil samples taken are dried by laying them on clean nylon or file papers in a suitable place, at room temperature, in a way that does not attract dust.

 

Errors made in the application

Taking soil samples for fertilization purposes is the basis of fertilization. For this you need to be careful. Especially in practice, serious errors are encountered.

 

Some of the most common mistakes are as follows:

– Soil samples are not taken from a depth of up to 20 cm with a shovel, but rather from the surface of the soil and often by hand.

– The amount of soil taken is not 1 kg but 100-150 grams, and therefore the soil sent is not sufficient for analysis in the laboratory.

– The soil samples taken are placed in inappropriate containers.

– Labels are written with a ballpoint pen, not a pencil, and when they are placed in nylon and closed, the soil sweats and the ink becomes unreadable when the ink gets on the label.

– After the soil is placed in the nylon bag, since the nylon bags are not punctured in several places, the labels placed in them get wet and disintegrate in the nylon due to the moisture of the soil.

– When the farmer has more than one field in the same location, after the soil samples are taken, it is not stated on the label which soil belongs to which field, and thus, when the soils sent to the laboratory are analyzed and the report is sent, the fields are mixed up by the farmer.

 

For perennial plants: Taking soil samples from perennial plants for fertilization purposes is the same as for annual plants. Their difference from annual plants is that samples must be taken not only from the 20 cm depth of the soil (plow depth), but also from the depth of the soil.

For perennial plants, soil samples are generally taken from depths of 0-20, 20-40, 40-60 cm, but if necessary, soil samples are also taken from depths of 60-90 or 90-120 cm. Of course, a shovel is not enough to take soil samples from these depths. These samples can be taken with various types of augers, or a pit can be dug to these depths in the field and samples can be taken from a smooth edge of this pit.

The samples taken are labeled, bagged and sent to the laboratory as described in the annual plants section.

 

 4. CONCLUSION and RECOMMENDATIONS

Balanced fertilization and obtaining quality and abundant products are indispensable for conscious agriculture. For this, that is, for balanced fertilization and growing healthy plants, both the plant and the soil in which that plant is grown must be analyzed. While soil analysis only determines the fertility of the soil, plant analysis provides information about both the plant and the environment in which that plant is grown. Rather than the presence of sufficient nutrients in the soil that are useful to the plant, it is important to what extent the plant can benefit from that nutrient or whether it can benefit from it. This is best understood by performing plant and soil analyzes together. To this end:

• After plant and soil analyses, the accuracy of the analyzes must be checked with standard substances.
• Soil and plant analysis laboratories should be established in each region and sufficient technical personnel should be assigned there.
• Farmer unions and farmer cooperatives should be encouraged and supported to open laboratories.
• Farmers who use fertilizers and grow quality products according to soil analysis results should be rewarded and other farmers should be encouraged.
• Fertilizer recommendation and the type and amount of fertilizer to be sold should be made according to the soil analysis report.
• The use of new fertilizers (for example, with zinc additives) that contain nutrients missing in the soil should be recommended.

 

REFERENCES

Allison, L.E. and C.D. Moodie. 1965. Carbonate. In :C.A. Black et al (ed.) Methods of  Soil Analysis, Part 2. Agronomy 9:1379-1400. Am. Soc. Of Agron., Inc.,Madison,Wisconsin,U.S.A.

Bouyoucus, G.J. 1951. A Recalibration of the Hydrometer Method for Making Mechanical Analysis of Soil. Agr. J. 439.

Bremner, J.M. 1965. Total nitrogen. In. C.A. Black et al (ed). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Agronomy 9:1149-1178. Am. Soc .of Agron., Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

Chapman, H.D., and P.F. Pratt. 1961. Methods of analysis for soils, plants and waters.p.1-309.University ofCalifornia, Division of Agricultural Sciences.USA.

FAO. 1990. Micronutrient, Assessment at the Country Level: An International Study. FAO Soil Bulletin by Sillanpaa.Rome.

Fox, R.L., R.A. Olson, and H.F. Rhoades.1964. Evaluating the sulfur status of soil by plants and soil tests. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 28:243-246.

Greweling, T., and M. Peech. 1960. Chemical soil tests.CornellUniv. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. No.960.USA.

Jackson, M. 1958. Soil chemical analysis. p. 1-498. Prentice-Hall, Inc.Englewood Cliffs,New Jersey,USA.

Kjeldahl, J. 1883. Neue Methode zur Bestimmung des Stickstoffs in organischen Körpern. Z. Anal. Chem. 22:366-382.

Lindsay, W.L., and W.A. Norvell. 1978. Development of a DTPA test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 42:421-428.

Nelson, D.W., and L.E. Sommers. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. p.539-579. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part.2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. Agronomy Monograph No.9. (2nd Ed). ASA-SSSA,Madison,Wisconsin.USA.

Olsen, S.R., C.V. Cole, F.S. Watanabe, and L.A. Dean. 1954. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. US Dept. of Agric. Cric. 939.

Purvis, E.R., and N.K. Peterson.1956. Methods of soil and plant analysis for molybdenum. Soil Sci. 81:223-228.

Richards, L.A Ed. 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. United States Department of Agriculture Handbook 60:94.

Ülgen, N. ve N. Yurtsever, 1974. Türkiye Gübre ve Gübreleme Rehberi. Toprak ve Gübre Araştırma Enstitüsü Teknik Yayın No:28, Ankara.

Walkley, A. 1947. A critical examination of a rapid method for determining organic carbon in soils: Effect of variations in digestion conditions and inorganic soil constituents. Soil Sci. 63:251-263.

Walkley, A., and L.A.Black. 1934. An examination of Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 39:29-38.

Wolf, B. 1971. The Determination of Boron in Soil Extracts, Plant Materials, Composts, Manures, Water and Nutrient Solutions. Soil Science and Plant Analysis (2), 363-374.

Assoc. Dr. Burhan KARA

Süleyman Demirel University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops, Isparta
 

Agricultural production; It is done largely depending on natural ecological conditions. One or more of environmental factors such as drought, heavy rains, hail, frost, drought, salinity, pests, diseases and fire are risks that are frequently seen in agricultural production every year. In addition, the changing climate structure with global warming, disruption of natural balance and warm winter months further increase the severity of these risks, especially the risk of frost and drought. Therefore, under normal conditions, agricultural production is a risky activity and is significantly limited by environmental stress factors.

 

Today, it is accepted by many scientific circles that average surface temperatures are increasing and the climate is changing due to the rapid increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Since the second half of the 20th century, the increase in the average temperature on land and sea surfaces, the average amount of precipitation decreasing in some regions while increasing in others, the rise of sea level and the significant decrease in snowfall prove that the world climate has begun to change (IPCC, 2007).

 

Various mathematical climate models show that the changes in climate will continue into the future. Industrialization, the increasing amount of fossil fuels, the decrease of pasture and forest areas, the opening of agricultural areas for development, etc. It is inevitable that climate changes will occur if activities that trigger global warming and increase the release of CO2 and various harmful gases continue. As a result; The number of hot days will increase, the number of cold days will decrease, heavy rains and storms will be seen more frequently due to increasing humidity in many parts of the world, long and hot summers will bring severe droughts, winter months will be warmer and snowfall will decrease, desertification and It is predicted that climate-related disasters will become stronger and more frequent (IPCC, 2001)

 

Our country, which has a wide geography, is affected by climate change in different ways and sizes due to its different topographic structure. It is an accepted fact that in recent years, due to global warming, snowfall in almost every region of our country has decreased significantly compared to 15-20 years ago. Since snow melts slowly, it increases the moisture content of the soil and prolongs the moisture period of the soil, and even if it does not rain, plants can benefit from this moisture and grow. Rain water; Due to surface flow and rapid washing, not enough moisture can accumulate in the soil, and therefore the ground water sinks deeper. That's why snow; It is the most important water source of soil, ponds, dams, irrigation canals and rivers. For this reason, it is said in Anatolia that "the more snow falls in winter, the more abundance there will be throughout the year."

 

In lands devoid of snow cover, freezing and thawing of the upper part of the soil causes significant damage to winter-planted grains. In winter months, in soils that thaw during the day and freeze at night, the roots of the plants break off in the soil as a result of frost heaving (frost cutting). In late plantings, frostbite may be more severe and severe in plants that enter winter with weak root systems. Frost drought is when the plant cannot absorb water due to the soil being frozen in open, abundant light, windy and cold weather in lands devoid of snow cover. Since the nutrient intake of plants exposed to frost drought and frost drought is low or cannot be absorbed, they turn yellow, their height becomes shorter, they become skinny and sparse, productivity and quality decrease significantly, and plants may even die depending on the duration and severity of frost drought and frost drought. Snow cover prevents frost and drought in wheat and other cool climate grains. Snow cover plays a role in preventing heat exchange between the soil and the atmosphere, and the temperature under the snow does not decrease much. In a study, in temperature measurements made in an area with a 52 cm thick snow cover, the air temperature was measured as -17.0 0C and the ground surface under the snow was -1.6 0C. The snow cover provided a protection of 15.4 0C. The temperature change in the snow cover is less than in the air, and falling snow prevents the soil from freezing deep (Sencar and Gökmen, 2004).

 

 

In our country, in the Eastern Anatolia region, after wheat is planted in the field in the autumn (buried planting), the seeds germinate, but they overwinter under the snow cover before emerging to the soil surface, and emerge on the soil surface at the appropriate temperature in the spring. When the snow cover is removed, growth and development of plants continues. That's why our ancestors said, "Snow is the quilt of wheat."

Precautions that wheat and similar winter grain producers can take in regions lacking snow cover.

1.  

   1. Drought and cold resistant wheat varieties should be preferred.

   2. The most important precaution that can be taken against frost drought and frostbite during the winter months; In order for wheat to enter the winter with a stronger root system, the planting time must be adjusted well. The first week of October is the most suitable planting time for wheat in Central Anatolia, the South-West transition region and similar climate regions. As planting is delayed after this date, yield and winter hardiness decrease.

   3. Balanced NPK fertilization should be applied. In order for the seedlings not to enter the winter in an overdeveloped state, excessive nitrogen fertilizers should be avoided. Phosphorus, which encourages the development of the root system, and especially potassium fertilizers, which regulate the osmotic pressure in plant cells, encourage root development, increase resistance to drought and cold, and positively affect the uptake of other nutrients, according to the soil analysis results. It should be applied together with planting in recommended doses.

   4. The time of top fertilization (nitrogenous fertilizer) should be adjusted well. Even if the climatic conditions are favorable, plants cannot benefit much from the top fertilization applied in January and February as the temperature drops to zero degrees or lower at night. By monitoring the development status of the plant (at the end of February, depending on the stemness), nitrogen fertilizer should be applied at the beginning of March and slightly more than the recommended dose. Nitrogen fertilizer applied at the appropriate time and in excess helps damaged seedlings recover and accelerates development.

References

IPCC, 2001. Birleşmiş Milletler Hükûmetler Arası İklim Değişikliği Paneli İklim Değişikliği Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu.

IPCC, 2007. Climate Change. The Physical Science Basis Summary for Policymakers Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate,Paris,France.

Sencar, Ö., Gökmen, S. 2004. Tarımsal Ekoloji. Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları No: 8, Ders Kitapları Serisi No: 3, 241s, Tokat.