Prof. Dr. Yakup ÖZKAN

Gaziosmanpaşa University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, TOKAT

Nowadays, a big change is taking place in the countries where fruit cultivation takes place. It is thought that fruit growing will be a profitable investment branch in the coming years when gardens are established in a modern system with the new varieties obtained in the world. The most important feature of production with dwarf trees is that the amount spent on investment is returned in a short time, as they yield in the early years. The quicker return of expenses as income is the most attractive situation for the business and the producer. In traditional cultivation, the economic yield age for apple and cherry trees reaches the 7th and 8th years, while economic yield can be reached in the 3rd and 4th years for trees grafted on dwarf rootstocks. The transition of apples and cherries, which can grow in many parts of our country, to modern dwarf orchards is inevitable in the near future.
 

The initial establishment cost of dwarf orchards is higher than the establishment cost of classical orchards. However, the gross income from intensive orchards will largely exceed the increase in the initial facility cost due to the production in the early years, the high price advantage and the reduction in interest expenses that will accumulate.

One of the most produced fruit types in the world is apple. Again, apples are grown in approximately 90% of dwarf orchards in the world. There is an average annual production of 2,500,000 tons of apples in Turkey. We can only export a symbolic amount of this production, such as 50,000 tons. Almost all of this exported amount is provided by dwarf orchards (Figure 1).

 

Figure 1. View of a 7-year-old dwarf apple orchard in Karaman.

 

In countries with advanced fruit growing, production has become more conscious with the new varieties obtained by breeders. However, in some regions where apple cultivation is carried out in our country, production still continues with varieties with low market value, such as Golden D. and Starking D., whose production has been completely abandoned in the USA and Europe. However, new dwarf apple orchards should be established instead of existing classical orchards, using new apple varieties such as Fuji, Gala, Braeburn, Red Chief and Jonagored with high market value, and modern support and training systems. Otherwise, fruit imports of quality apple varieties from abroad will not be prevented and our traditional apple production will come to a dead end in the near future.

Dwarf orchard systems have been successfully used commercially in Europe for more than 30 years. Densely planted gardens have replaced the classical orchards with low density. More clearly, small trees with leader branches replaced large trees with many leaders. In our country, the areas where dwarf fruit cultivation, mostly apples, are most common are the provinces of Niğde, Isparta, Karaman, Konya, Bursa and their surroundings. Dwarf fruit cultivation in these regions is more advanced than other regions, thanks to private sector initiatives. However, the transition to dwarf fruit growing in fruit species such as apples, pears, cherries, plums and peaches is advantageous in many ways. It is possible to list these advantages as follows, using the apple example, taking into account yield and quality.

 

In dwarf apple orchards;

1. Yield per decare varies between 3-10 tons under good care conditions. At least 90% of the fruits obtained are first class fruits, thanks to special finishing systems.
2. Fruit quality characteristics such as color and sugar accumulation are at the highest level and are at a homogeneous level.
3. New varieties are attractive to producers because they will be productive in a shorter time.
4. Since saplings grafted onto dwarf rootstocks form small trees, harvesting and spraying are easier and the cost is lower.
5. There will be no problem in marketing the product, and since it is generally the quality varieties preferred by the market, it fetches a high price.
6. In addition, it should not be forgotten that the new varieties are more resistant to storage and have less quality loss.

 

In traditional cultivation;

1. The yield per decare cannot exceed 4 tons even under good care conditions. Under normal conditions, it is 1.5-2 tons.
2. Maximum 30% of the fruits obtained are first class.
3. In the current system, large-crowned, strong trees cannot produce fruit in the entire crown area. Most of the crown area is shaded on the inside. It should be known that the most important issue for fruit formation is light. The rate of trees in the old system benefiting from the sun (light) is quite low. Since the resulting fruits cannot benefit from light homogeneously, color and sugar accumulation are not sufficient. It is not preferred in the market due to quality losses and goes for a low price. Therefore, there is no possibility of export.
4. Old varieties do not withstand long-term storage, except for a few varieties.

 

In dwarf fruit cultivation, cultural processes such as irrigation, fertilization, training and pruning must be carried out technically and properly. Today, in countries where dwarf fruit cultivation is practiced, no irrigation method other than drip and mini sprinklers is used. In recent years, these methods have been used in newly established gardens. However, dwarf trees tend to produce excessive shoots when overwatered. Excessive and strong shoot formation delays fruit bearing in trees. The balance of trees is disrupted in favor of vegetative development.

When the producer unconsciously engages in pruning to maintain balance, shoot development will increase further. When the producer unconsciously engages in pruning to maintain balance, shoot development will increase further.

 

Figure 2. Standard fruits from dwarf apple trees

 

As a result, it will be difficult to keep the tree balanced. The ideal is to allow the development of shoots in the desired number and quality with sufficient water and nutritional needs. A good gardener can understand the language of the dwarf tree. When a large number of shoots develop, new shoots can be plucked manually while they are still sprouts.

In dwarf trees, the most emphasis should be on training. Pruning is a last resort. When necessary, summer pruning should be done to reduce vegetative growth. The best way to control vegetative power in dwarf trees is to apply growth-slowing training systems to the main trunk.

 

In order to make it easier for the shoots to lie on the fruit, weights and branch opening devices should be used to widen the branch angles (Figure 3).

A support system for trees is essential in an orchard that will be established with apple varieties grafted onto dwarf rootstocks such as M 9 and M 26. It should be clearly clear which training system will be applied to the trees in dwarf orchards. Today, slender spindle systems in the Netherlands, vertical axis and solen systems in France, and Hytec systems in America are common in dwarf apple cultivation. How can the desired yield be obtained from a Fuji garden grafted onto M.9 rootstock without applying a support and training system? Is the yield of 600-700 kg per decare from such a garden in its 4th and 5th years really a yield? Is the quality level of the fruits obtained sufficient? It is really difficult to answer these questions positively. The average yield of an ideal dwarf apple orchard with a support system, 4-5 years old, is at least 3 tons. Moreover, almost all of the 3 tons of fruit we obtain are homogeneous in terms of fruit quality.

Maintenance and harvesting operations in an apple orchard with 7-8 m tall and wide trees planted at 10×10 m intervals in classical cultivation are much more difficult and expensive than in dwarf trees. However, picking apples from 2.5-3.0 m tall trees is both very easy and enjoyable. Frankly, picking fruits from dwarf trees is a job that people of all ages can do.

While more pesticide is consumed in spraying large trees, the pesticide cannot be applied homogeneously throughout the crown of the trees. Almost all small trees are ideally treated. Also, since there is no need to climb the tree, we can do pruning etc. on the tree. Applications are easier on dwarf trees and require less labor. Larger trees are more difficult and costly to prune.

Apple trees grafted onto dwarf rootstocks such as M 27, Bud 9, M.9, M 9 EMLA, Mark and M.26 cannot bear the heavy fruit load without trunk or leader branch support. If production is expected from dwarf trees in the first years, the support system is not a choice but a necessity.

 

 

(Figure 4)

If pruning and training choices are made wisely, balance is usually achieved. Methods that can be used to reduce vegetative growth are thinning pruning and spreading the branches. Renewal cuttings also provide relatively weak and horizontal growth on the remaining stem. The method to be used to encourage shoot development is to prune the tops and leave the branches in their natural positions (mostly vertical). Shortening cuttings, depending on severity, will generally maintain a balance between shoot development and spur development.

The craftsmanship required for small trees is not complicated but difficult. On larger trees, training (shaping the main branches) is less important, while pruning is more impactful and takes more time and energy. Training small trees is more critical and can take much more time than pruning.

High fruit quality is the wish of all producers, especially table fruit producers. Fruiting branches and nearby leaves need to receive sufficient sunlight to develop very large fruits and increase fruit coloration. In large trees grafted onto strong or medium-strong rootstocks, most of the crown is shaded and less sunlight is used for high fruit quality. However, in trees on dwarf rootstocks, a very large proportion of the crown receives sufficient sunlight.

Our producers' view of dwarf fruit is almost the same as their habits in traditional fruit growing. The issue of dwarf fruit growing, which includes elements such as greater density of trees, support structures and tree training, which is much more important than traditional orchards, includes issues that require an agricultural revolution in our country, just like the industrial revolution. In Turkey, fruit gardens have been created with dwarf saplings for the last 10-15 years. However, the efficiency level achieved in Europe and America has not yet been reached. Our producers cannot achieve the desired efficiency either due to economic reasons or lack of technical knowledge.

The solution lies in changing our current habits. Due to the physiological structure of dwarf trees, more meticulous attention should be paid to irrigation, fertilization, pruning and training techniques. A good gardener must be a good observer. The values in books and articles about the water and nutrient requirements of trees should be analyzed carefully. Let's get to know all the information about dwarf trees. However, let's not try all the information we have obtained and heard from different sources on our trees. Let's evaluate the information we obtained from subject experts collectively and try the applications that come to our mind on our trees.

If the grower is open to innovations and pays attention to the above points, he will undoubtedly become the best expert in his garden within a few years.

Wishing our producers abundant profits…

Dr. Sami SÜZER

Agricultural Engineer

Trakya Agricultural Research Institute

 

1. Importance of Wheat:

Increasing the efficiency of plant production in our limited agricultural areas is of great importance in solving the nutritional problems of our rapidly growing country population. One of the most prominent field crops in human nutrition is wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Flour, bulgur, pasta and starch obtained from wheat products are used in human nutrition; The stalks of the wheat plant are used in the paper-cardboard industry and animal nutrition. In our country, wheat is cultivated in an area of approximately 9.4 million hectares, and its production is approximately 19-21 million tons, depending on the annual rainfall from year to year. The yield per decare is between 203-223 kg.

 

2. Climate and Soil Requirements:

Wheat plant requires low temperature and plenty of humid air in the early stages of its growth period. Especially during germination and tillering, the temperature desired by wheat is 5-10 oC and the humidity is 60%. In the second stage of wheat development, at stalking, a temperature of 10-15 oC and a relative humidity of 65% are required.

Although the wheat plant grows in all types of soil, high yields are generally obtained from deep, clayey, loamy-clayey, humus-rich soils. On the other hand, it is possible to grow pasta wheat in poorer soils than bread wheat.

 

3. Soil Tillage:

Soil tillage is the first of the most important processes in wheat agriculture to obtain quality and abundant products. The seed bed must be prepared carefully so that the planted seed can germinate on time and uniformly. In wheat seedbed preparation, for example, in the sunflower-wheat rotation in Thrace, it is appropriate to perform reduced tillage in order to preserve the organic matter in the soil and to be economical. In the seed bed preparation to be made with this method, the stem residues remaining in the field after the sunflower harvest should be shredded with a stem shredder and processed with a goble disk at a depth of 10-15 cm and mixed thoroughly to turn into organic matter into the soil. Our farmers should never plow for wheat cultivation in very humid soil conditions. That's why our ancestors said, "Don't plow the field, it will turn to mud and then to iron."

 

4. Fertilization:

In order to make conscious and balanced fertilization in wheat agriculture, our producers should analyze the soil samples they will duly take, representing the field they will plant, and fertilize according to the recommendations recommended to them.

Phosphorus fertilizers should be applied to the soil with or before planting. Nitrogen fertilization should be divided into three parts to prevent nitrogen from being washed out of the soil. The first part of nitrogen is 20-25 kg per decare using one of the compound fertilizers such as 20-20-0 before or after planting, the second part is 8-10 kg/da in the form of urea (46% N) at the end of February, and the last third is It is appropriate to spread 16-20 kg/da on the field in the form of ammonium nitrate (26% N or 33% N) at the end of March.

 

In wheat farming, applying phosphorus, potassium, zinc, calcium and sulfur fertilizers to the soil before planting ensures easy and sufficient intake of plants during their future growth and development. According to the cultivation technique research, in agricultural areas with 600 mm annual rainfall in Thrace, the wheat grain yield target per decare is 14 kg/da of pure nitrogen when dry, that is, 500 kg/da in natural rainfall conditions, and 700 kg/da and above in irrigated agricultural conditions. 16 kg/da pure nitrogen and 4-5 kg/da pure phosphorus doses are sufficient. The ideal application of nitrogenous fertilizers, which have the most impact on the yield and quality of the wheat product, is done by dividing it into three.

In the first nitrogen fertilizer application in wheat agriculture, one third of the nitrogen is used before or after planting, according to the deficient nutrients in the soil. (NP) 18.46.0, which contains nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), zinc added (NP+Zn) 20.20.0. +(1% Zn) or 25 kg/decare of any of the 10.25.5+(5% CaO)+(15% SO3) compound fertilizers called crop fertilizer, which contain calcium and sulfur as well as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK+Ca+S). It can be given around . The other third of the second nitrogen fertilizer application is 10-12 kg/da in the form of urea (46% N) in February during the tillering period of the wheat, and the last third of the third nitrogen fertilizer application is applied to the plants at the end of March, in other words, ammonium nitrate before stemming. It is appropriate to apply 15-20 kg/da to the field in the form of (33% N).

 

 

5. Wheat Seed and Amount to be Planted per Decare:

It is very important to use certified seeds in order to obtain high and quality products in wheat agriculture. A good seed must comply with the regional conditions, have been previously tested in the region where it will be planted, must be registered or have a production permit as requested by the millers, have high yield potential and sowing speed, have plump grains, and be treated against diseases (such as late blight) and pests (such as Zabrus sp.).

The amount of seed to be planted should be calculated as 500 live grains per 1 m2, according to the tillering capacity of the wheat variety, thousand grain weight, output power and purity of the seed. The amount of seeds to be sown per decare varies from variety to variety and seed size. For example, in Thrace, the most appropriate amount of seed to be planted per decare is 18-20 kg for varieties with high tillering ability such as Pehlivan and Golia, 16-18 kg for small varieties such as Sarajevo, and 20 kg for coarse-grained varieties with high thousand-seed weight such as Flamura-85, Gelibolu and Tekirdağ. It should be between -24 kg.

 

7. Sowing Time:

One of the most important factors determining planting time in wheat farming is the soil temperature in the seed bed. If planting is done when the soil temperature is 8-10 oC, root development will be rapid and the root crown will be deep. Planting at this appropriate time increases resistance to cold and drought. Early planting and late planting are undesirable as the severe cold in the winter will cause the plant to be damaged. For example, the most suitable planting date for the Thrace region is between 15 October and 15 November.

 

8. Planting Depth:

Winter wheat planting can be done at a depth of 5-6 cm. Depending on the thousand grain weight or size of the seed to be planted, this depth may be 4-5 cm for small seeds and 5-6 cm for large seeds.

 

9. Transplantation Method:

In wheat planting, our producers mostly use modern combined or universal planting machines (seeder). Wheat planting machines can be pressed, flat and combined, planting on the arc base. Today, in our country, it is possible to find domestically produced planter foot type bottom spring, ax or disc planting machines suitable for every region and soil conditions.

 

10. October Watch (Alternation):

In agricultural areas, planting the same plant repeatedly in the same field causes the soil to become poor and the diseases of that plant to increase. In terms of sustainable agriculture, wheat should be harvested every year or at least every two years in the same field to combat pests such as root diseases, zabrus and wheat fly, and to maintain soil fertility. should enter into crop rotation with products such as corn.

 

11. Weed Control:

Chemical control in the wheat field in the early period when the weeds have 2-4 leaves increases the grain yield by 20-30%. Depending on whether the weeds seen in their fields have narrow or broad leaves, our farmers should purchase the correct weed killer and use it on time, in the recommended dose, with the appropriate amount of water and in windless weather. When using drugs such as chlorosulforon group, which are used in very low doses of 1-3 grams per decare and have long-lasting effects on the soil, great care should be taken, especially in sandy lands poor in organic matter, in order to prevent their negative effects on the next crop.

 

12: Fighting Diseases:

Wheat fields should be checked every week, especially in the spring, for fungal diseases such as root rot, powdery mildew and rust, which are especially common in the Thrace region. In case of suspicion of the disease, experts should be notified and necessary chemical control should be carried out. It should be done in a timely manner, in line with the recommendations of agricultural experts, against pests such as thrips (Zabsrus sp.) and sunn (Eurygaster spp.) that can be seen in wheat plantings.

 

13. Foliar Fertilizers:

In wheat agriculture, foliar fertilizer applications should be preferred, in consultation with relevant experts, on wheat fields where nutrient deficiency is assured, licensed, TSE certified and in a formulation that will meet the required nutrients. Leaf fertilizers should be mixed with the correct amount of water according to the instructions on the packaging and applied with a suitable sprayer in the evening on windless days.

 

14. Irrigation:

Irrigation in wheat farming should be done with a suitable method such as sprinkler irrigation during the periods of pregnancy and milk production, where possible, in the dry months of April and May. Irrigation in dry years provides a 100% increase in productivity in wheat agriculture compared to dry conditions. Plants need water the most during the stemming period and milk formation period.

 

15. Harvest:

In wheat farming, harvesting with a combine harvester is done when the moisture content in the grain is around 13-15%. When harvest time comes, the wheat plant is in full maturity and becomes completely straw colored. Early harvest requires drying of the product, while being late increases harvest losses.

 

16. Conclusion:

As a result, obtaining high and quality products per unit area in wheat agriculture, which is of great importance for our country, depends on our producers' good soil preparation, uniform planting, conscious fertilization, and timely fight against weeds, pests and diseases.

MAY YOUR PRODUCT BE PLENTY AND YOUR PROFITS PROSPEROUS!

References

Süzer, S. 1992. Buğday Tarımında Yüksek Verim Almanın Yolları. Marmara’ da Tarım. Sayı:51: 5-7.

Süzer, S. 1994. Buğday Tarımında Gübrelemenin Önemi İle Bitki Besin Maddelerinin Noksanlıklarının Belirtileri. Marmara’ da Tarım. Sayı:59:42-44.

Süzer, S. 2003. Buğday Hasadında Dane Kayıplarını Azaltmada Alınabilecek Önlemler. Tarım İstanbul. Sayı: 85: 9-11.

Süzer, S. 2003. Trakya Koşullarında Sürdürülebilir Tarımın Toprak Verimliliği ve Ekosistemin Korunmasına Etkileri. Keşan Sempozyumu. 15-16 Mayıs 2003, Keşan.

Süzer, S. 2007. Ayçiçeği-Buğday Ekim Nöbeti Sisteminde Farklı Toprak İşleme Yöntemlerinin Buğday Verimine Etkisi. 25-27 Haziran 2007 VII. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi, Erzurum

Dr. Halil SÜREK

Trakya Agricultural Research Institute, Edirne

As with every product, in order to obtain a good product in rice, the necessary nutrients must be present in the soil in a way that can be used by the plant. There must be 16 elements that are necessary for rice and other plants and are important in the life of plants. These are divided into two groups as macro and micro elements. Macro elements; carbon (C), hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), potash (K), magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca) and sulfur (S). Micro elements are Iron (Fe); manganese (Mn), boron (B), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and Chlorine (Cl).

The elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potash are often applied by farmers as fertilizers. However, recently, although zinc is a microelement, its deficiency affects product yield and quality in many paddy production regions and our farmers are forced to apply zinc fertilization. Sulfur is applied indirectly in the form of (NH4)2 SO4, K2 SO4 and Ca SO4.

In the early 1960s, there was a significant increase in the use of nitrogen fertilizer with the development of short-tall and lodging-resistant rice varieties that respond well to nitrogen fertilization. Nitrogen fertilization has emerged as a factor determining yield. In fact, phosphorus and potassium fertilizer applications without using nitrogen reduced grain yield (De Datta et al., 1988).
 

Factors such as climate, soil properties, amount and type of fertilizer applied, variety and cultivation technique applications affect the nutrient uptake of plants (Ishizuka, 1965).

In places suitable for rice cultivation, nitrogen deficiency is often observed in soils where rice is grown. The need for phosphorus and potash is not as great as the need for nitrogen. However, in soils where rice is grown, a response to phosphorus and potash applications is observed. As seen in Figure-1, rice plant responds better to phosphorus than potash. Effective use of applied nitrogen is only possible with the balanced presence of phosphorus and potash in the soil. Unless there is sufficient amount of phosphorus and potash in the soil, the effectiveness of responding to nitrogen decreases. Therefore, if there is a deficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash in the fields where rice will be grown, the rice should be fertilized with fertilizers containing these elements.

These elements must be present in sufficient amounts in the soil from planting to harvest. It is important for high efficiency. As seen in Figure-2, the rice plant needs these three main nutritional elements from planting to harvest maturity. For this reason, fertilizer application should be done in a dose and time to ensure that the necessary nutrients are available in the soil throughout the entire growing season (Ishizuya, 1973).

NITROGEN FERTILIZATION

Nitrogen is an absolutely necessary element for the formation of amino and nucleic acids, nucleotides and chlorophyll. It encourages rapid development by increasing plant height and tillering. At the same time; It also increases leaf size, number of spikelets in the cluster, number of full grains in the cluster and grain protein content. As a result, we can say that nitrogen affects all parameters that contribute to yield. There is a close relationship between the nitrogen content of the leaf and photosynthesis and biological efficiency production. When sufficient amounts of N are applied, the crop's need for other elements such as P and K increases (Doberman and Fairhurst, 2001).

Nitrogen is needed throughout the entire development period of the plant. However, it is needed most between the early seedling period and the middle of tillering and at the beginning of the cluster formation period. It is important to provide sufficient nitrogen during the grain filling period to delay leaf death and increase photosynthesis production.

Changes caused by nitrogen application in the development of the rice plant (De Datta, 1981).

– It gives a dark green appearance to the stem and leaves of the plant,

– Accelerates development or increases plant height and tillering,

– Increases leaf and grain sizes,

– The number of spikelets and fertile grains in the cluster increases,

– Grain protein content increases.

Symptoms that may occur in nitrogen deficiency:

– Short plants with few siblings,

– The leaves are narrow, erect and yellowish green in color,

– Old leaves turn straw colored and die.

 

Amount of Nitrogen to be Used

Nitrogen need varies depending on soil type, variety, planting time, use of herbicides and nutrient residues left by previous crops in the soil. Less nitrogen is used in cases where new rice is planted, weak-stemmed varieties are planted, legume plants have been grown before and planting is delayed. In fields where rice is continuously planted and in fields where early sowing is done, higher doses of nitrogen fertilizer are used for optimum plant development and high yield. Using more fertilizer than necessary; It may cause decreases in productivity due to lodging and the emergence of some fungal diseases.

Murayama (1979) stated that plants need 19-21 kg of nitrogen to obtain one ton of rice product. As the yield increases, N uptake naturally also increases.

Atanasiu and Samy (1983) classified varieties according to nitrogen need as follows.

a) High-yielding japonica or improved indica varieties need nitrogen in doses up to 18 kg/da.

b) Low-yielding old or traditional varieties can be grown with nitrogen available in the soil or with a nitrogen dose of 3-5 kg/da.

c) Late varieties that mature in 150-160 days need more nitrogen than early varieties that mature in 100-120 days.

As a result of the N fertilizer trials carried out at the Trakya Agricultural Research Institute, it was seen that the varieties grown in our country reached optimum yield with 17-18 kg/da of nitrogen.

 

Type of Nitrogenous Fertilizer to be Used

In paddy farming, which is done by submerging the soil, Ammonium Form nitrogenous fertilizers should be used to keep nitrogen loss through denitrification and evaporation to a minimum. The most suitable nitrogenous fertilizers for this are ammonium sulfate and urea (Hill, 1992).

Grist (1975) stated that young plants respond better to NH4 and older plants respond better to NO-3. In a study conducted by Tanaka et al. (1959), in the soil solution, plants achieved better growth and higher yield when fertilized with NH4 until the cluster formation period and with NO-3 in the later periods.

In the studies carried out at the Trakya Agricultural Research Institute in 1984, 1985 and 1986, the highest yield was obtained with ammonium sulfate, as seen in Table 1. It was followed by urea. This shows us that the most suitable N fertilizer that can be used in rice farming is ammonium sulfate (Sürek et al., 1998).

Chart. 1. The results of the nitrogenous fertilizer form trial conducted at the Trakya Agricultural Research Institute in 1983, 1985 and 1986 are kg/da (Sürek et al. 1998).

 

Konu	Yıllar
	1983	1985	1986	Ortalama
A. sülfat	844.0	704.0	922.3	823.3
Üre	819.0	666.0	876.1	787.0
A. Nitrat	683.0	560.0	867.3	703.4
Kontrol (gübresiz)	—	367	506.3	436.6

 

Nitrogen Application Time

Depending on the physiological development period, nitrogen should be divided into appropriate portions and applied in parts. At the same time, nitrogen application time varies depending on soil structure and irrigation methods. In light soils, it should be applied in more fractions to minimize nitrogen loss. Additionally, in heavy soils, one or two applications may be sufficient.

The rice plant needs a significant amount of nitrogen from the beginning of the tillering period to the middle of tillering in order to maximize the number of bunches. Nitrogen applied at the beginning of the cluster formation period increases the number of grains in the cluster. Some nitrogen may also be needed during the grain filling phase (De Datta, 1981).

As a result of a study conducted at the Trakya Agricultural Research Institute in 1983, 1984 and 1985, it was seen that dividing the applied nitrogen into two or three equal parts and applying it in portions was effective in utilizing nitrogen (Sürek et al., 2001). Nitrogen application is made by dividing the nitrogen to be applied into three equal parts, 1/3 of it into the soil before planting, 1/3 at the beginning of tillering and the remaining 1/3 at the beginning of the cluster formation period (55 or 60 days after planting). The best results were obtained when applied. However, the most critical application time appeared to be the beginning of the cluster formation period. Nitrogen applied during this period is very important for high yield.

 

FERTILIZATION WITH PHOSPHORUS

Phosphorus promotes activities such as tillering, root development, early flowering and grain filling in low temperature conditions. Phosphorus is especially needed in the early stages of development. When the amount of available phosphorus in the soil is insufficient, it is very important to apply phosphorus fertilization for proper root development.

In areas where phosphorus is needed, mixing the appropriate amount of phosphorus fertilizer into the soil before planting increases rice yield. However, in some fields where rice is planted on top of each other, there is sufficient phosphorus available to the plant (Hill, 1992).

De Datta (1981) explained the changes caused by phosphorus in plant development as follows.

 

Effect of phosphorus application;

Increases root development,

It encourages early flowering and grain filling, especially in cool climate conditions.

Increases tillering and grain development,

Symptoms caused by phosphorus deficiency;

– Formation of short plants with a small number of siblings,

– Formation of narrow, short, upright and dark green leaves,

– Young leaves are healthier than older leaves, which turn brown and die later.

– The number of leaves, bunches and grains in the cluster decreases,

– The stems are thin and plant development is delayed,

– Maturation is delayed,

– Thousand grain weight and grain quality decrease

 

– There is a decrease in response to applied N,

– Algae does not form on the water surface.

As soon as the field is flooded, the availability of phosphorus in the soil decreases and the need for phosphorus in the early development stages of rice is very high. For this reason, it will be very beneficial to apply all the phosphorus to the soil before planting for good root development and plant structure formation (Braun and Roy, 1985).

In general, although it varies depending on soil characteristics, the amount of phosphorus to be applied is between 6-8 kg/da in paddy agriculture. As phosphorus fertilizer, 25-30 kg/da, 20-20-0, or 30-35 kg/da 15-15-15 compound fertilizers or compound fertilizers developed by some companies specifically for paddy crops and containing three main nutritional elements can be used. .

FERTILIZATION WITH POTASSIUM

Potash increases leaf area and leaf chlorophyll content, delays leaf death, resulting in a larger foliage formation for photosynthesis and better crop development. Potash also increases the number of spikelets and full grains in the cluster and the weight per 1000 grains. In addition, potash increases the rice plant's tolerance to bad weather conditions, lodging, diseases and pests.

Symptoms caused by potash deficiency:

In severe potash deficiency conditions, leaf tips are yellowish brown. Symptoms first appear on older leaves, then extend to the leaf edges and eventually reach the leaf base. The upper leaves are short, low in structure and dirty green in color. Older leaves turn yellow to brown. If potash deficiency is not corrected, color change will also appear on young leaves over time. In addition, in case of potash deficiency, conditions such as shortening of plants, increase in lodging, premature leaf death, increase in spikelet sterility and unhealthy root development may occur.

In general, our soils are rich in potassium. For this reason, there is no need to use potassium fertilizer in paddy fertilization. However, sometimes potash deficiency may occur in fields where rice is planted on top of each other or where heavy land leveling is carried out. In this case, in order to achieve high and quality yield, it would be appropriate to use some potash fertilizer every 2 or 3 years, depending on the need. In cases of potash deficiency, product quality and effective utilization of nitrogenous fertilizer decreases. As a source of potash, 30-35 kg of 15-15-15 compound fertilizer or compound fertilizers developed by some companies specifically for rice products and containing three main nutritional elements can be used.

CONCLUSION

Nitrogen Application

Amount of nitrogen to be used; Although it varies depending on factors such as soil properties, planted variety and planting time, it should be between 17-18 kg per decare.

The recommended type of nitrogenous fertilizer for paddy is Ammonium Sulphate. If this is not available, Urea should be preferred. If it is necessary to use Ammonium Nitrate, Nitrate form fertilizers should be used only after cluster formation.

Nitrogen application time; Nitrogen must be divided into at least three parts and used. 1/3 of this should be applied to the soil before planting, 1/3 at the beginning of tillering and the remaining 1/3 at the beginning of the cluster formation period (55-60 days after planting).

Phosphorus Application

In fertilizing rice with phosphorus, depending on the fertility of the soil; Between 6-8 kg of phosphorus per decare should be applied to the soil before planting, using one of the recommended compound fertilizers.

 

Potash Application

In general, our country's soil is rich in potash. Therefore, potash application may not be needed. However, in fields where rice is planted on top of each other or heavily leveled, potash deficiency may occur. In such cases, some potash should be applied using recommended compound fertilizers.

 

 

REFERENCES

Atanasiu, N., and J. Samy, 1983. Rice, effective use of fertilizers. Centre d’Etude de L’azote, Zurich  93 pages.

Braun, H., and R.N. Roy, 1985. Rice fertilization- a pragmatic approch. In the proceeding of the 16 th seesion of the International Rice Commission. 10-14 June 1985. Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. International Rice Commis. Newsletter. Vol. XXXIV, No 2:163-193.

De Datta, S.K., 1981. Principles and Practices of Rice Production. John Wiley and Sans, New York,

De Datta, S.K., F. Garcia, W.P. Abilay, and J.M. Alcantara, 1988. Yield constraints and fertilizer management in shallow rainfed transplanted and broadcast seeded lowland rice in the Philippines. IRRI, Research paper series.

Dobermann, A., and T. Fairhurst, 2001. Rice: Nutrient Disorders and Nutrient Management. IRRI, Los Banos, pp 139-144.

Grist, D.H., 1975.  Rice., 5 th Edition, Longman, London

Hill, J.E., 1992. Rice Production in California. Cooperative  Extension, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication. 21498 22 pages.

Ishizuka, Y., 1965. Nutrient uptake a different stages of growth. The proceeding of symposium at IRRI, 24-27 February, 1964.

Ishızuka, Y., 1973. Physiology of the rice plant. Food and Fert. Techn. Centre. ASPAC. Techn. Bull. No. 13 Taipei, Taiwan.

Murayama, N., 1979. “The importance of nitrogen for rice production”. In Nitrogen and Rice. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philippines .

Sürek, H., N. Beşer, M. Neğiş, ve H. Kuşku, 1998. Bölgemizde ekonomik bir çeltik tarımı için yerine getirilmesi gerekli şartlar. Marmarada Tarım, 68:43-45.

Sürek, H., A. K. Ezer ve M. Neğiş, 2001. Geliçmenin farklı devrelerinde yapılan azotlu gübre uygulamalarının çeltik (Oryza sativa L.) verimi ve bazı karakterlere etkisi. Trakya Toprak ve Su Kaynakları Sempozyumu. 24-25 Mayıs 2001, Kırklareli. Sayfa 334-341

Tanaka, A., S., Patnaik and C.T. Abichandani, 1959. “Studies on the nutrition of rice plant (Oryza sativa L.). VI. Utilization of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen by rice plant under waterlogged soil state. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Sec. Bul. 50:61-74.

Figure 1. Effect of applied NPK on grain yield.

Fig.2. Curve showing the relationship between rice plant growth and nutrient uptake.

Photo-1. Plants with nitrogen deficiency.

Photo-2. Plants with poor tillering due to phosphorus deficiency.

Photo-3. Development of plants with and without phosphorus application.

Photo-4. Development of plants with and without potash application.

Photo-5. Symptoms of potash deficiency in the appearance of brown rust on older leaves